Culture, cultural self-awareness, importance of cultural competence, strengths and shortcomings, developing cultural competence, training, social work practice
Three sections follow:
1. Background Material that provides the context for the topic
2. Suggestions for Practice
3. A list of Supporting Material / References
Feedback welcome!
Background Material
Because of the socio-cultural diversity that exists in many countries, social workers require personal insight and a degree of cultural competence to engage effectively with people from diverse backgrounds (Azzopardi & McNeill, 2016; Maidment, 2011; Windon, 2023).
Culture
Culture is the complex system and process of shared knowledge, beliefs, traditions, symbols, language, art, and social organisation. Culture is the lens through which individuals perceive and interpret the world and create meaning in their everyday lives (Maidment, 2011; Windon, 2023). Culture is socially transmitted and highly influential in shaping beliefs, experiences, and worldviews. While the term ‘culture’ was traditionally narrowly limited to the one-dimensional characteristics of race and ethnicity shared by members of a specific group, in recent years culture has been considered as individually and socially constructed and is ever-evolving. There is wide variation between and within different groups (Azzopardi & McNeill, 2016).
Each particular kind of life has its own culture associated with it. People exist in many cultural worlds. Culture:
is what helps make sense of lives
shapes world views—people see the world through individual cultural lenses
effects all aspects of social life
defines what is acceptable and what is not acceptable – what is preferable and not preferable
identifies how to behave and what to expect of others
guides people in making judgements – good, bad, ugly, cool, uncool
unites and divides people at a high level (e.g., Australian culture, French culture, Chinese culture, European culture, Aboriginal culture)
unites and divides people at a lower level (e.g., surf cultures, football cultures, coin collectors, opera goers, train spotters, vegetarians, Anglicans, ‘coasties’, highlanders, ‘bogans’, Akubra wearers, beer drinkers, academics, knitting circle members etc.). Each of these groups have their own cultural worlds, their own sets of values that provide meaning and guidance (Macionis & Plummer, 2012)
Some useful points to keep in mind around culture include:
Culture is not static—it is dynamic and constantly changing.
Culture, language ethnicity and race are not the only determinants of a person’s values, beliefs and behaviours. Secondary characteristics (e.g. socio-economic status, political beliefs, occupational identity and parenting status) also shape behaviour.
In describing any particular culture or cultural practice, within-group differences are often as great as across-group differences and sometimes greater.
Discussions of culture and ethnicity are typically framed in terms of differences in relation to another group.
Everyone is a product of one or more cultures and everyone has a culture (Maidment, 2011).
Cultural self-awareness
Our personal connectedness with our own culture exists below the level of consciousness and is so deeply embedded that it escapes everyday thought. As such, developing cultural self-awareness requires a concerted level of critical self-examination of the influence of our cultural roots on our thinking. This process of enriching cultural self-awareness requires a person to examine her/his personal subjectivity in relation to cultural matters, identify stereotypical thinking (category-based beliefs about people) and the ways in which prejudice is displayed (thinking about individuals solely in terms of their positive or negative stereotypes) and discrimination is exercised (unfair treatment of others based on their group membership). The difference between prejudice and discrimination is the difference between thinking/feeling (prejudice) and doing (discrimination). Such an exercise commonly uncovers disturbing personal prejudices and unexpected levels of intolerance towards difference (Maidment, 2011).
The next step in developing cultural self-awareness is to identify the values, beliefs and customs associated with one’s personal cultural heritage. Government websites will often indicate what are considered the principal cultural values for each country (Maidment, 2011). For example, the Australian Government (2020) identifies freedom, respect, fairness, and equality of opportunity as central values along with:
Commitment to the rule of law
Parliamentary democracy
Freedom of speech
Freedom of association
Freedom of religion
Equality of all people under the law
Equality of opportunity and a ‘fair go’
Mutual respect and tolerance of others
Contributing to life and community
Compassion for those in need
English as the national language
Helping to keep our society safe
Loyalty to Australia
In contrast Iraqi values (sourced from a search using AI) include:
Collectivism: Iraqis are often seen as members of a group, such as a family or extended family, and feel a sense of belonging and protection from these groups.
Respect: Iraqis respect elders and women, especially those with children.
Hospitality: Iraqis value hospitality and generosity, and it's considered polite to accept second helpings at meals.
Loyalty: Iraqis value loyalty to their family and community.
Modesty: Iraqis tend to be conservative and value social decorum, and they may conceal or deny things that could tarnish their honour.
Family: Parental control can extend beyond the age of 18, and the father or oldest male is the patriarch of the family.
Religion: Most Iraqis are Shiite Muslims, but there are also Sunni Muslims and Christians.
Greetings: A common greeting is a handshake, direct eye contact, and a smile. It's also normal for people of the same gender to kiss on the cheek.
The World Values Survey (2020) provides an insight into the differences between cultures—two dimensions dominate the picture: (1) Traditional/Secular-rational and (2) Survival/Self-expression values. These two dimensions explain more than 70% of the cross-national in values.
Traditional | Secular-Rational |
Religion important | Religion not important |
Deference to authority important | Deference to authority not important |
Emphasises parent-child ties | Does not emphasise parent-child ties |
Absolute standards | Relative standards |
Traditional family values important | Traditional family values not important |
Reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, suicide | Accept divorce, abortion, euthanasia, suicide |
High levels of national pride | Low levels of national pride |
Nationalistic outlook | Cosmopolitan outlook |
Survival | Self-Expression |
Developing industrial societies | Post-industrial “knowledge-based” societies |
Economic security | Subjective well-being |
Physical security | Self-expression |
| Quality of life |
Materialistic values | Post-materialist values:
|
Because of the difference between cultures the social work principles of client self-determination, autonomy and social justice will not be universally shared or interpreted in the same way by people from non-Western societies. For example, if punctuality equals respect in a culture, people who turn up late to a social work appointment can ignite feelings of frustration, and lead to misinterpretation about the family lacking commitment to address issues. What it means to be healthy is often culturally defined. Illness may be interpreted as punishment or the work of evil spirits. Spiritual beliefs provide another point of difference between cultures (Maidment, 2011).
The next step in developing cultural self-awareness is to find out more about clients’ cultural norms, i.e. develop cultural competence.
Cultural competence
Cultural competence is the ability of a person to effectively interact, work, and develop meaningful relationships with people of various cultural backgrounds—their beliefs, customs, and behaviors. Gaining cultural competence is a lifelong process. It goes beyond tolerance, which implies that one is simply willing to overlook differences. Instead, it includes recognizing and respecting diversity through our words and actions in all contexts (Guzman et al., 2016; Windon, 2023).
There is an organisational and an individual aspect to cultural competence. At the individual level, developing cultural competence requires acknowledgment of one’s own cultural assumptions, values and beliefs. It involves understanding that culture shapes worldview, and that individuals view the world differently based on their cultural background and related experiences. Organisations with high levels of cultural competence foster successful, diverse workforces, using cultural difference as a strength for more effective decision-making, innovation and adaptability. They also understand the needs and preferences of a diverse range of consumers and provide products and services that are appropriate, accessible and inclusive (FECCA, 2019).
Cultural competence builds on cultural sensitivity and cultural awareness:
Cultural sensitivity is being aware that differences and similarities exist between groups of people without ascribing any particular value to these.
Cultural awareness involves developing an understanding of another group, which necessitates making some changes in the way one behaves, including becoming more open and more flexible in our responses to difference.
Cultural competence moves beyond cultural sensitivity and awareness and integrates and transforms knowledge about individuals and groups into specific standards, policies, practices and attitudes to be used in appropriate cultural settings to operate effectively in different cultural contexts (Maidment, 2011).
Historically limited to racial and ethnic minorities, the concept of culturally competent practice has more recently been applied to all individuals of diverse backgrounds (Azzopardi & McNeill, 2016).
As culture is a dynamic, complex and constantly changing construct, there is no point at which cultural competence is ‘achieved’. Developing individual or organisational cultural competence is an open-ended process of improving attributes, skills, degrees of knowledge, policies and strategies which together enhance the ability to communicate across cultures. Cultural competence is developed on a spectrum, rather than through mastery of a skillset or practice. Developing cultural competence requires a commitment to ongoing learning, reflection and diverse and inclusive practices (FECCA, 2019).
Importance of cultural competence
Demographic shifts and an increasingly diverse population due to rapid migration will continue to result in increasing population growth among ethnic minority groups. Everyone needs to be able to interact, communicate, build relationships, and work effectively with people from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Cultural competence and related skills (e.g. global awareness) are essential in today’s workplace because issues around cross-cultural contact, discrimination, inequality, bias and breakdowns in intercultural communications persist. All of these, in their various forms, are hurtful to those giving and receiving (Guzman et al., 2016).
Culturally competent practice models: strengths and shortcomings
A number of approaches to culturally responsive practice have developed over time (Azzopardi & McNeill, 2016).
The cultural literacy model was the first broadly applied framework: culture is knowable through learning about shared history, traits and practices and applying culturally specific interventions. This fits with defining culture as static, neglecting the sociocultural realities of multiple and intersecting identities. The notion that one can truly know another’s culture or be an expert in the cultures (and subcultures) of others has been challenged as unrealistic and simplistic.
Both deficit and relativistic perspectives have been used as approaches to cultural competence. A deficit perspective is criticized for pathologizing cultural beliefs and practices perceived as deficient, resulting in interventions that are overly intrusive or unnecessarily interventionist. A relativistic perspective, on the other hand, is criticized for viewing all cultural practices, including those that are potentially harmful, as equally valid, resulting in interventions that are too weak or hesitant. The challenge comes in striking a fair balance between the two ends of the spectrum. Social workers are likely to find a midpoint that may shift in one direction or the other depending on client circumstances; however, cultural relativity should never be used as a rationale for violating human rights.
Addressing the power imbalances that shape worker-client dynamics, the construct of cultural humility has emerged as an alternative conceptualization of cultural competence. The core interconnected elements of cultural humility are institutional and individual accountability, life-long learning and critical reflection, and mitigation of power differentials. Characterized by an “other-oriented” interpersonal stance, cultural humility has been shown to be positively correlated with a strong working alliance and improvements in therapy.
Although several cultural competence frameworks have been proposed in social work practice and academia, no consensus appears to have been reached in the profession thus far. Most approaches share some basic assumptions, including the premise that reality is socially constructed, diverse worldviews must be appreciated, multiple realities shape individual personalities, and diversity education has a positive effect on developing cultural competencies.
Suggestions for Practice
Developing cultural competence
Developing cultural competence is a process rather than an end point. It is hard to point to a particular time when one can say he or she has reached cultural competence. Below are some suggestions to move forward in the development of cultural competence.
Increase cultural and global knowledge: Learning more about other cultures’ practices, values, and beliefs (e.g. language, child-rearing practices, religious traditions) and being aware of current events is often key in learning about various cultural groups’ points of view. Understanding why people moved from their home countries is essential.
Self-assessment: Reflecting critically on personal biases and prejudices helps to develop the skills necessary to effectively interact and engage with individuals whose cultural background is different. Realizing that everyone has biases is an important step for building cultural competence. Biases may stem from personal backgrounds, experiences, or demographics, and these biases exist whether or not one is aware of them.
Going beyond tolerance: Building skills and putting them into action by asking open-minded and open-ended questions, or asking for more information about others’ cultures. Do this by exercising the skills of active listening, empathy and engagement.
Active listening: Active listening entails thinking about the feeling behind the content or the emotion involved. Stay focused on what is being said and how it is said. Ask questions for clarification rather than offering advice.
Empathy: The art of seeing and feeling the situation of another, walking in another person’s shoes, or seeing the world as that person sees it. Empathy involves understanding that person’s perceptions and the conclusions that person draws about his or her life experiences. It does not imply agreement.
Engagement: This should be mutually beneficial and a reciprocal learning experience in which one learns from another. Focus on the behaviors and the situation, not the person (Guzman et al., 2016).
Cultural competence can be enhanced by considering eight dimensions of a person’s worldview. Keeping these in mind will enable one to gain a greater understanding of each person’s cultural priorities and avoid over-generalising and stereotyping, and reduce the likelihood of overlooking differences that exist between people of the same culture (Maidment, 2011).
Primary mode of existence | Culturally significant dimensions |
Psycho-behaviour |
|
Values |
|
Guiding beliefs |
|
Ways of knowing |
|
Ways of reasoning |
|
Nature of reality |
|
Time |
|
Concept of self |
|
Cultural competence training
Research suggests that diverse organisations are more successful / profitable because diverse organisations can better identify consumer need, attract a larger, more varied and qualified pool of potential employees, and provide a happier, more harmonious workplace. A diverse workforce leads to increased levels of cultural competence. Cultural competence training, policies and processes are a means through which an organisation can improve its cultural competence, develop and support diversity in the workforce and better ensure that products and services meet the needs of consumers regardless of background (FECCA, 2019).
Cultural competence training can include:
creating awareness of one’s own cultural worldview, stereotypes and bias
deepening knowledge of different cultural practices and views
awareness and understanding that cultural and linguistic differences may impact on communication
understanding why and how communication and behaviours should be adapted in different cross- cultural situations
how to work effectively, and respectfully with people of different cultural and linguistic backgrounds
highlighting the benefits of diversity, whether in the workplace or society more broadly
creating plans and strategies to foster organisational cultural competence such as Multicultural Access and Equity plans or recruitment polices (FECCA, 2019).
Good cultural competence training:
is based on evidence, research and experience,
emphasises the benefits of cultural diversity,
is fit for purpose,
contains interactive elements,
is presented in a format that is professional, engaging and accessible,
includes pre-training and post-training evaluation,
is delivered by skilled trainers (FECCA, 2019).
Social Work Response
Social workers apply an intersectional perspective to the complexities around culture and diverse identities in society. That is, they practice respectfully and inclusively with a clear and critical understanding of the ways in which different aspects of a person’s social and political identities can expose them to the overlapping and compounding effects of discrimination, stigma and power imbalances. Social workers will, at a minimum:
apply an intersectional lens in their approach to complexities around culture and diversity
respectfully engage with people who have culturally diverse identities
adapt and modify their practice on the basis of a critical awareness of how their personal values, cultures and beliefs impact on their interactions with people
consult with relevant community members to inform their work with and for people from diverse identities and backgrounds
advocate for organisational policies and processes that aim to counter the effects of overlapping forms of discrimination, stigma and power imbalances in service delivery
practise from a culturally safe framework and promote appropriate organisational policies and practice (AASW, 2023).
Practitioners often find they need to adapt their repertoire of responses acquired through Western social work training and experience, in order to build rapport with and respond effectively to culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) clients. For example, social workers can represent institutional authority and a personal threat to personal and family safety. They may need to be a friend first and a professional second, something that is outside of the professional protocols usually followed by social workers. Clients may find a detached clinical approach offensive or not helpful. It may be a matter if negotiating alternative guidelines around extended family in some situations. There are a number of other worker characteristics and contextual dimensions that contribute to successful cross-cultural engagement and intervention.
Personal attributes of social workers: acceptance of difference, tolerance, patience, honesty, compassion and attentive listening.
Being prepared to spend the extra time needed because of language difficulties.
Knowledge and ability to work with interpreters.
Address ageist practices and treat older people well at micro, meso and macro levels, e.g. undertake research to gain some basic cultural knowledge about the country of origin, learn basic language skills such as greetings and the ability to say yes and no.
Become aware of the intergenerational expectations within CALD families so negotiation can occur when attempting to provide practical help (Maidment, 2011).
Supporting Material / References
AASW: Australian Association of Social Workers. (2023). AASW Practice Standards. AASW. https://www.aasw.asn.au/practice-standards-2023/
Australian Government Department of Home Affairs. (2020). Australian citizenship: Our common bond. https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/citizenship/test-and-interview/our-common-bond
Azzopardi, C., & McNeill, T. (2016). From cultural competence to cultural consciousness: Transitioning to a critical approach to working across differences in social work. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 25(4), 282-299. https://doi-org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/10.1080/15313204.2016.1206494
FECA: Federation of Ethnic Communities’ Councils of Australia. (2019). Cultural competence in Australia: A guide. https://fecca.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Cultural-Competence-in-Australia-A-Guide.pdf
Georgetown University (n.d.). Definitions of cultural competence. https://nccc.georgetown.edu/curricula/culturalcompetence.html
Guzman, M. R. T., Durden, T. R., Taylor, S. A., Guzman, J. M., & Potthoff, K. L. (2016). Cultural competence: An important skill set for the 21st century. Nebraska Extension, G1375. https://extensionpubs.unl.edu/publication/g1375/na/html/view
Loi, M. (n.d.a). What are the four features of Cultural Competence? Evolve Communities https://www.evolves.com.au/four-features-of-culutral-competence/
Loi, M. (n.d.b). How Does Cultural Awareness Promote Cultural Safety? Evolve Communities. https://www.evolves.com.au/how-does-cultural-awareness-promote-cultural-safety/
Macionis, J. J., & Plummer, K. (2012) Sociology: A Global Introduction (5th Ed). Essex: Pearson.
Maidment, J. (2011). Cross-cultural practice. In M. Connolly & L. Harms (Eds), Social work: Contexts and practice (2nd ed., pp.149-162). Oxford University Press.
Windon, S. (2023). What is cultural competence and how to develop it? PennState Extension. https://extension.psu.edu/what-is-cultural-competence-and-how-to-develop-it
World Values Survey. (2020). Findings and Insights. https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSContents.jsp
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